The so-called ', a 16th-century BC mask discovered by in 1876 at,.. The word 'mask' appeared in English in the 1530s, from masque 'covering to hide or guard the face', derived in turn from maschera, from masca 'mask, specter, nightmare'. This word is of uncertain origin, perhaps from maskharah مَسْخَرَۃٌ 'buffoon', from the verb sakhira 'to ridicule'. However, it may also come from mascarar 'to black (the face)' (or the related mascarar, mascurer). This in turn is of uncertain origin — perhaps from a Germanic source akin to English 'mesh', but perhaps from mask- 'black', a borrowing from a language. One German author claims the word 'mask' is originally derived from the Spanish más que la cara (literally, 'more than the face' or 'added face'), which evolved to 'máscara', while the Arabic 'maskharat' - referring to the buffoonery which is possible only by disguising the face - would be based on these Spanish roots. Other related forms are masecha= 'mask'; Arabic maskhara مَسْخَرَ = 'he ridiculed, he mocked', masakha مَسَخَ = 'he transfomed' ().
History The use of masks in or is a very ancient human practice across the world, although masks can also be worn for protection, in hunting, in sports, in feasts, or in wars – or simply used as ornamentation. Some ceremonial or decorative masks were not designed to be worn. Although the religious use of masks has waned, masks are used sometimes in drama therapy or psychotherapy. Ancient masks. Replica of the of at the in Mexico One of the challenges in is finding the precise derivation of human culture and early activities, with the invention and use of the mask only one area of unsolved inquiry. The use of masks dates back several millennia. It is conjectured that the first masks may have generally been used by primitive people to associate the wearer with some kind of unimpeachable authority, such as 'the gods' or to otherwise lend credence to the person's claim on a given social role.
The oldest masks that have been discovered are 9,000 years old, being held by the (Paris), and the (Jerusalem). Most probably the practice of masking is much older – the earliest known artwork is circa 30,000–40,000 years old – but insofar as it involved the use of war-paint, leather, vegetative material, or wooden masks, the masks probably have not been preserved (they are visible only in cave drawings, of which dozens have been preserved). At the Roche-Cotard site in France, a flintstone likeness of a face was found which is about 35,000 years old, but it is not clear that it was intended as a mask. In the, one can read how used to cover 'their nakedness' after eating the fruit from the.
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'The masquerade motif appears in the Bible on two different levels: an attempt to fool people and an attempt to fool God.' What shaped Judaic ritual was an 'absolute prohibition against fashioning a statue or a mask', originating with the. In the cult of, found in from circa 6,000 BC, the young, naked ithyphallic god appears in a horned mask. In the Greek and the cult, which involved the use of masks, the ordinary controls on behaviour were temporarily suspended, and people cavorted in merry revelry outside their ordinary rank or status. Claims that in the Roman festivals, the ordinary roles were often inverted. Sometimes a slave or a criminal was temporarily granted the insignia and status of royalty, only to be killed after the festival ended. The, in which all are equal behind their masks, dates back to 1268 AD.
The use of carnivalesque masks in the Jewish festivities probably originated in the late 15th century, although some Jewish authors claim it has always been part of Judaic tradition. The North American tribes used masks for healing purposes (see ). In the, masks functioned above all as mediators of supernatural forces. Could be small three-inch finger masks, but also ten-kilo masks hung from the ceiling or carried by several people.
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Masks have been created with plastic surgery for mutilated soldiers. Masks in various forms (sacred, practical, or playful) have played a crucial historical role in the development of understandings about 'what it means to be human', because they permit the imaginative experience of 'what it is like' to be transformed into a different identity (or to affirm an existing social or spiritual identity). Not all cultures have known the use of masks, but most of them have. Masks in performance.
Mask dance at a funeral feast in the, 1930s. Throughout the world, masks are used for their expressive power as a feature of masked performance - both ritually and in various theatre traditions. The and definitions of mask usage frequently overlap and merge but still provide a useful basis for categorisation. The image of juxtaposed Comedy and Tragedy masks are widely used to represent the Performing Arts, and specifically.
In Ancient Rome, the word meant 'a mask'; it also referred to an individual who had full. A citizen could demonstrate his or her lineage through, of the ancestors. These were wax casts kept in a, the family shrine. Rites of passage, such as initiation of young members of the family, or funerals, were carried out at the shrine under the watch of the ancestral masks. At funerals, professional actors would wear these masks to perform deeds of the lives of the ancestors, thus linking the role of mask as a ritual object and in theatre. Masks are a familiar and vivid element in many and traditional,,, and, and are often of an ancient origin.
The mask is normally a part of a costume that adorns the whole body and embodies a tradition important to the religious and/or social life of the as whole or a particular group within the community. Masks are used almost universally and maintain their power and mystery both for their wearers and their audience.
The continued popularity of wearing masks at, and for children at parties and for festivals such as are good examples. Nowadays these are usually mass-produced plastic masks, often associated with popular, programmes, or characters - they are, however, reminders of the enduring power of pretence and play and the power and appeal of masks. Ritual masks Ritual masks occur throughout the world, and although they tend to share many characteristics, highly distinctive forms have developed. The function of the masks may be magical or religious; they may appear in rites of passage or as a make-up for a form of theatre. Equally masks may disguise a penitent or preside over important ceremonies; they may help mediate with spirits, or offer a protective role to the society who utilise their powers. Biologist has suggested that ritual masks, as representations of the human face, are extremely revealing of the two fundamental aspects of the human psychological condition: firstly, the repression of a cooperative, instinctive self or soul; and secondly, the extremely angry state of the unjustly condemned conscious thinking egocentric intellect. Masks of There are a wide variety of masks used in Africa.
In West Africa, masks are used in masquerades that form part of religious ceremonies enacted to communicate with spirits and ancestors. Examples are the masquerades of the,, and cultures, including and. The masks are usually carved with an extraordinary skill and variety by artists who will usually have received their training as an apprentice to a master carver - frequently it is a tradition that has been passed down within a family through many generations.
Such an artist holds a respected position in tribal society because of the work that he or she creates, embodying not only complex craft techniques but also spiritual/social and symbolic knowledge. African masks are also used in the Mas or Masquerade of the. (also known as Jolé or Yolé) is a mask-dance from Temine people in Sierra Leone. Males wear the mask, although it does depict a female. Mask used for the ngil ceremony, an inquisitorial search for sorcerers. Wood,, 19th century. Many African masks represent animals.
Some African tribes believe that the animal masks can help them communicate with the spirits who live in forests or open savannas. People of known as the Bwa and call to the spirit to stop destruction.
The of have complex religions that also have animal masks. Their three main cults use seventy-eight different types of masks. Most of the ceremonies of the Dogon culture are secret, although the antelope dance is shown to non-Dogons. The antelope masks are rough rectangular boxes with several horns coming out of the top. The Dogons are expert agriculturists and the antelope symbolizes a hard working farmer. Another culture that has a very rich agricultural tradition is the people of Mali.
The antelope (called ) is believed to have taught man the secrets of agriculture. Although the Dogons and Bamana people both believe the symbolises agriculture, they interpret elements the masks differently. To the Bamana people, swords represent the sprouting of grain. Masks may also indicate a culture's ideal of feminine beauty. The masks of of have highly arched eyebrows, almost almond-shaped eyes and a narrow chin. The raised strip running from both sides of the nose to the ears represent jewellery. Dark black hairstyle, tops the mask off.
The whiteness of the face represent the whiteness and beauty of the spirit world. Only men wear the masks and perform the dances with high stilts despite the masks representing women. One of the most beautiful representations of female beauty is the 's Mask of in present-day Edo State of Nigeria. It is believed to have been commissioned by a king of Benin in memory of his mother. To honor his dead mother, the king wore the mask on his hip during special ceremonies.
The people of the represent tranquility by making masks with eyes half-shut and lines drawn near the mouth. The of use masks with small eyes and mouths to represent humility and humbleness. They represent wisdom by making bulging forehead.
Other masks that have exaggerated long faces and broad foreheads symbolize the soberness of one's duty that comes with power. War masks are also popular. The of the Ivory Coast and Liberia carve masks with round eyes to represent alertness and anger, with the straight nose to represent unwillingness to retreat. Holding mask, Papua New Guinea Today, the qualities of are beginning to be more understood and appreciated. However, most African masks are now being produced for the tourist trade. Although they often show skilled craftsmanship, they nearly always lack the spiritual character of the traditional tribal masks.
Oceania The variety and beauty of the masks of are almost as highly developed as in Africa. It is a culture where is dominant and religious ceremonies are devoted to ancestors. Inevitably, many of the mask types relate to use in these ceremonies and are linked with the activities of secret societies.
The mask is regarded as an instrument of revelation, giving form to the sacred. This is often accomplished by linking the mask to an ancestral presence, and thus bringing the past into the present. As a culture of scattered islands and peninsulars, Melanesian mask forms have developed in a highly diversified fashion, with a great deal of variety in their construction and aesthetic.
In Papua New Guinea, six metre-high totem masks are placed to protect the living from spirits; whereas the and tubuan masks of New Guinea are used to enforce social codes by intimidation. They are conical masks, made from cane and leaves. North America. Ritual mask (painted wood, fiber, and cord) Coastal groups have tended towards simple religious practice but a highly evolved and rich mythology, especially concerning hunting.
In some areas, annual ceremonies involved masked dances and these strongly abstracted masks are arguably the most striking artifacts produced in this region. Inuit groups vary widely and do not share a common mythology or language. Not surprisingly their mask traditions are also often different, although their masks are often made out of driftwood, animal skins, bones, and feathers. See also: Coastal indigenous groups were generally highly skilled.
Their masks were often master-pieces of carving, sometimes with movable jaws, or a mask within a mask, and parts moved by pulling cords. The carving of masks was an important feature of wood craft, along with many other features that often combined the utilitarian with the symbolic, such as,, poles, and houses.
Woodland tribes, especially in the North-East and around the, cross-fertilized culturally with one another. The made spectacular wooden ‘’ masks, used in healing ceremonies and carved from living trees. These masks appear in a great variety of shapes, depending on their precise function. Craftsmen produced impressive work for masked religious ritual, especially the and. The, god/spirits, frequently take the form of highly distinctive and elaborate masks that are used in ritual dances. These are usually made of leather with appendages of fur, feathers or leaves. Some cover the face, some the whole head and are often highly abstracted forms.
Masks appear to be inspired by the Pueblo prototypes. In more recent times, masking is a common feature of traditions, most notably in. Costumes and masks (originally inspired by ) are frequently worn by members on Mardi Gras Day. Laws against concealing one's identity with a mask are suspended for the day. Latin America.
Aztec mask of, c. 1500, of -Aztec provenance Distinctive styles of masks began to emerge in pre-Hispanic America about 1200BC, although there is evidence of far older mask forms.
In the, masks were used to dress the faces of the dead. These were originally made of fabric, but later burial masks were sometimes made of beaten or, and occasionally of. For the, human skulls were prized as war, and skull masks were not uncommon. Masks were also used as part of court entertainments, possibly combining political with religious significance.
In post-colonial Latin America, traditions merged with Christian rituals, and syncretic masquerades and ceremonies, such as / developed, despite efforts of the Church to stamp out the indigenous traditions. Masks remain an important feature of popular carnivals and religious dances, such as.
Mexico, in particular, retains a great deal of creativity in the production of masks, encouraged by collectors. Matches, where it is common for the participants to, are very popular, and many of the wrestlers can be considered folk heroes. For instance, the popular wrestler continued wearing his mask after retirement, revealed his face briefly only in old age, and was buried wearing his silver mask.
Asia India/Sri Lanka/Indo-China Masked characters, usually divinities, are a central feature of Indian dramatic forms, many based on depicting the epics and. Countries that have had strong Indian cultural influences –,,,, and Lao – have developed the Indian forms, combined with local myths, and developed their own characteristic styles. The masks are usually highly exaggerated and formalised, and share an aesthetic with the carved images of monstrous heads that dominate the facades of and temples. These faces or Kirtimukhas, 'Visages of Glory', are intended to ward off evil and are associated with the animal world as well as the divine. During ceremonies, these visages are given active form in the great mask dramas of the South and South-eastern Asian region. Main article: In Indonesia, the mask dance predates Hindu-Buddhist influences. It is believed that the use of masks is related to the cult of the ancestors, which considered dancers the interpreters of the gods.
Tribes such as have masked Hudoq dance that represents nature spirits. In and, masked dance is commonly called and demonstrated Hindu influences as it often feature epics such as and. The native story of also popular in topeng masked dance. Indonesian topeng dance styles are widely distributed, such as topeng Bali, Cirebon, Betawi, Malang, Yogyakarta, and Solo.
A Mask In China, masks are thought to have originated in ancient religious ceremonies. Images of people wearing masks have been found in rock paintings along the. Later mask forms brings together myths and symbols from and. Shigong dance masks were used in shamanic rituals to thank the gods, while dance masks protected from bad spirits. Wedding masks were used to pray for good luck and a lasting marriage, and 'Swallowing Animal' masks were associated with protecting the home and symbolised the 'swallowing' of disaster.
Opera masks were used in a basic 'Common' form of opera performed without a stage or backdrops. These led to colourful facial patterns that we see in today's (Beijing Opera). A Korean mask worn by a performer Korean masks have a long tradition associated with and later in ritual dance.
Korean masks were used in war, on both soldiers and their horses; ceremonially, for burial rites in jade and bronze and for shamanistic ceremonies to drive away evil spirits; to remember the faces of great historical figures in death masks; and in the arts, particularly in ritual dances, courtly, and theatrical plays. The present uses are as miniature masks for tourist souvenirs, or on cell-phones where they hang as good-luck talismans. Mask of Japanese masks are part of a very old and highly sophisticated and stylized theatrical tradition. Although the roots are in prehistoric myths and cults, they have developed into refined art forms. The oldest masks are the gigaku. The form no longer exists, and was probably a type of dance presentation. The bugaku developed from this – a complex dance-drama that used masks with moveable jaws.
The nō or mask evolved from the gigaku and bugaku and are acted entirely by men. The masks are worn throughout very long performances and are consequently very light. The nō mask is the supreme achievement of Japanese mask-making.
Nō masks represent gods, men, women, madmen and devils, and each category has many sub-divisions. Are short farces with their own masks, and accompany the tragic nō plays. Is the theatre of modern Japan, rooted in the older forms, but in this form masks are replaced by painted faces. Inuit cultures Inuit groups vary widely and do not share a common mythology or language. Not surprisingly their mask traditions are also often different, although their masks are often made out of driftwood, animal skins, bones, and feathers. Golden masks excavated in Kalmakareh,,.
First half of first Millennium BC.. Theatre in the Middle East, as elsewhere, was initially of a ritual nature, dramatising man's relationship with nature, the gods, and other human beings. It grew out of sacred rites of myths and legends performed by priests and lay actors at fixed times and often in fixed locations. Folk theatre — mime, mask, puppetry, farce, juggling - had a ritual context in that it was performed at religious or rites of passage such as days of naming, circumcisions, and marriages. Over time, some of these contextual ritual enactments became divorced from their religious meaning and they were performed throughout the year. Some 2500 years ago, kings and commoners alike were entertained by dance and mime accompanied by music where the dancers often wore masks, a vestige of an earlier era when such dances were enacted as religious rites. According to, this practice evoked that of Roman funeral rites where masked actor-dancers represented the deceased with motions and gestures mimicking those of the deceased while singing the praise of his life (see Masks in Performance above).
Fools Meeting or Parade,, Germany Masks are used throughout Europe, and are frequently integrated into regional folk celebrations and customs. Old masks are preserved and can be seen in and other collections, and much research has been undertaken into the historical origins of masks. Most probably represent, and as a result many of the associated customs are seasonal. The original significance would have survived only until the introduction of which then incorporated many of the customs into its own traditions.
In the process their meanings were also changed so, for example, old and goddesses were, literally, demonised and were viewed as mere, subjugated to the. Many of the masks and characters used in European festivals belong to the contrasting categories of the 'good', or 'idealised beauty', set against the 'ugly' or 'beastly' and grotesque. This is particularly true of the Germanic and Central European festivals. Another common type is the, sometimes considered to be the synthesis of the two contrasting type of Handsome and Ugly.
The oldest representations of masks are animal masks, such as the of in the in southern France. Such masks survive in the alpine regions of Austria and Switzerland, and may be connected with hunting or, and tend to be particularly associated with the New Year and festivals. The debate about the meaning of these and other mask forms continues in Europe, where,,,,, and other fanciful characters appear in carnivals throughout the continent. It is generally accepted that the masks, noise, colour and clamour are meant to drive away the forces of darkness and winter, and open the way for the spirits of light and the coming of spring. In existed the tradition of Mamuthones e Issohadores of; Boes e Merdules of; Thurpos of; S'Urtzu, Su 'Omadore and Sos Mamutzones of. Another tradition of European masks developed, more self-consciously, from court and civic events, or entertainments managed by and co-fraternities.
These grew out of the earlier revels and had become evident by the 15th century in places like Rome, and, where they developed as entertainments to enliven towns and cities. Thus the carnival in St Marks Square in Venice, attended by the and aristocracy also involved the guilds, including a guild of maskmakers. There is evidence of 'commedia dell'arte' inspired Venetian masks and by the late 16th century the Venetian Carnival began to reach its peak and eventually lasted a whole 'season' from January until. By the 18th century, it was already a tourist attraction, saying that he was ugly enough not to need a mask.
The carnival was repressed during the Napoleonic Republic, although in the 1980s its costumes and the masks aping the C 18th heyday were revived. It appears other cities in central Europe were influenced by the Venetian model. During the Reformation, many of these carnival customs began to die out in Protestant regions, although they seem to have survived in Catholic areas despite the opposition of the ecclesiastical authorities.
So by the 19th century, the carnivals of the relatively wealthy bourgeois town communities, with elaborate masques and costumes, existed side-by-side with the ragged and essentially folkloric customs of the rural areas. Although these civic masquerades and their masks may have retained elements drawn from popular culture, the survival of carnival in the 19th century was often a consequence of a self-conscious 'folklore' movement that accompanied the rise of nationalism in many European countries. Nowadays, during masks are often replaced with face paint for more comfort. Dance Mask (Takü), 20th century,; These full-body masks are worn for the mourning, or ónyo (“weeping”), ceremony, a multi-day ritual held approximately a year after an individual’s death.
In many cultural traditions, the masked performer is a central concept and is highly valued. In the western tradition, actors in wore masks, as they do in traditional Japanese drama.
In some Greek masks, the wide and open mouth of the mask contained a megaphone enabling the voice of the wearer to be projected into the large auditoria. In medieval Europe, masks were used in mystery and to portray allegorical creatures, and the performer representing God frequently wore a or gilt mask. During the, and developed - courtly masked entertainments that continued as part of conventions until the late eighteenth century. The masked characters of the included the ancestors of the modern clown. In contemporary western theatre, the mask is often used alongside to create a theatre which is essentially visual rather than verbal, and many of its practitioners have been visual artists.
Masks are an important part of many theatre forms throughout world cultures, and their usage in theatre has often developed from, or continues to be part of old, highly sophisticated, stylized theatrical traditions. Contemporary theatre. A artist Masks and were often incorporated into the theatre work of European artists from the turn of the nineteenth century.,,, and other artists of the School, as well as and, experimented with theatre forms and masks in their work. In the 20th century, many theatre practitioners, such as,,, and others in their lineage, attempted to move away from Naturalism. They turned to sources such as Oriental Theatre (particularly Japanese theatre) and, both of which forms feature masks prominently.
(1872–1966) in A Note on Masks (1910) proposed the virtues of using masks over the naturalism of the actor. Craig was highly influential, and his ideas were taken up by,,, - and later by,, and and others who 'attempted to restore a ritualistic if not actually religious significance to theatre'. Copeau, in his attempts to 'Naturalise' the actor decided to use mask to liberate them from their 'excessive awkwardness'. In turn, Copeau's work with masks was taken on by his students including and later, via,. Lecoq, having worked as movement director at Teatro Piccalo in Italy, was influenced by the Commedia tradition.
Lecoq met, a sculptor, and they collaborated on reviving the techniques of making traditional leather Commedia masks. Later, developing Copeau's 'noble mask', Lecoq would ask Satori to make him masques neutre (the neutral mask).
For Lecoq, masks became an important training tool, the neutral mask being designed to facilitate a state of openness in the student-performers, moving gradually on to character and expressive masks, and finally to 'the smallest mask in the world' the clown's red-nose. One highly important feature of Lecoq's use of mask, wasn't so much its visual impact on stage, but how it changed the performers movement on stage.
It was a body-based approach to mask work, rather than a visually led one. Lecoq's pedagogy has been hugely influential for theatre practitioners in Europe working with mask and has been exported widely across the world. This work with masks also relates to and. Students of Lecoq have continued using masks in their work after leaving the school, such as in 's.
In America, mask-work was slower to arrive, but the Guerrilla Theatre movement, typified by groups such as the and took advantage of it. Influenced by modern dance, modern mime, Commedia dell'arte and Brecht such groups took to the streets to perform highly political theatre., the founder of Bread and Puppet theatre, made particular use of German Carnival masks.
Bread and Puppet inspired other practitioners around the world, many of whom used masks in their work. In the US and Canada, these companies include of; Arm-of-the Sea Theatre from; Snake Theater from; and Shadowland Theatre of. These companies, and others, have a strong social agenda, and combine masks, music and puppetry to create a visual theatrical form. Another route masks took into American Theatre was via dancer/choreographers such as, who had been using masks in dance and had emigrated to America to flee the. In Europe, Schumann's influence combined with the early avant-garde artists to encourage groups like Moving Picture Mime Show and (both in the UK). These companies had a big influence on the next generation of groups working in visual theatre, including IOU and, who create a theatre in which masks are used along with puppets, film and other visual forms, with an emphasis on the narrative structure. Functional masks Masks are also familiar as pieces of kit associated with practical functions, usually protective.
There has been a proliferation of such masks recently but there is a long history of protective armour and even medical masks to ward off plague. The contrast with performance masks is not always clear-cut. Ritual and theatrical masks themselves can be considered to be practical, and protective masks in a sports context in particular are often designed to enhance the appearance of the wearer. Protective filter mask worn by officer Protective masks are pieces of kit or equipment worn on the head and face to afford protection to the wearer, and today usually have these functions: • Providing a supply of air or filtering the outside air.
• Protecting the face against flying objects or dangerous environments, while allowing vision. In Roman tournaments masks were sometimes used. From archaeological evidence it is clear that these were not only protective but also helped make the wearer appear more intimidating.
In Europe and in Japan soldiers and wore similarly ferocious-looking protective, extending to face-masks. In the 16th century, the was worn by women to protect from. Today this function is attributed to thin balaclavas. In sport the protective mask will often have a secondary function to make the wearer appear more impressive as a competitor. Before strong transparent materials such as were invented, to protect the face had to be opaque with small eyeslits, and were a sort of mask, as often in mediaeval suits of, and (for example) grímr meant 'mask or visor'.
A three-hole balaclava allows to protect the face against cold air or hinder. Masks are sometimes used to avoid. As a disguise the mask acts as a form of protection for the wearer who wishes to assume a role or task without being identified by others. • and other criminal perpetrators often wear masks as a means in concealing their faces and thus identities from their victims and from law enforcement. • Occasionally a for the appears in in a mask to avoid being recognized by associates of the accused.
• Participants in a at usually wear masks, often, to avoid recognition, and to try to protect against any used. Masks are also used to prevent recognition whilst showing membership of a group: • Masks are use by penitents in ceremonies to disguise their identity in order to make the act of penitence more selfless. The parades throughout Spain and in or countries throughout the world are examples of this, with their cone-shaped masks known as. • Use by groups • The cone-shaped mask in particular is identified with the in a self-conscious effort to combine the hiding of personal identity with the promotion of a powerful and intimidating image. • Members of the group frequently wear masks (usually, best known from ) when they attend protests. While the usually shows membership of some community, its hindering of recognition is not its purpose, although it falls under some such as the. Occupational • Beaked masks containing herbs in the beak were worn in the by plague doctors to try to ward off the.
•, a piece of safety equipment • as part of for divers and others; some let the wearer talk to others through a built-in communication device •, a mask worn on the face to protect the body from airborne pollutants and toxic materials • worn by high-altitude pilots, or used in medicine to deliver oxygen, anesthetic, or other gases to patients • to protect the welder's face and eyes from the brightness and sparks created during welding Sports. An American footballer wearing a mask that protects his face from another player's hand. • •, also known as a 'ski mask', to protect the face against cold air • catcher's mask •, an item of diving equipment that allows scuba divers, free-divers, and snorkelers to see clearly underwater • mask •, a mask worn by an or goaltender to protect the head and face from injury • helmets were made mandatory in 2010, and have a wire mask on the front to protect the player's face. •, a mask called Men is used in this Japanese sword-fighting martial art • • An interesting example of a sports mask that confounds the protective function is the, a mask most widely used in the Mexican/Latin style of wrestling. In modern lucha libre, masks are colourfully designed to evoke the images of animals,, ancient, and other.
The mask is considered 'sacred' to some degree, placing its role closer to the ritual and performance function. A medieval '. Masks are sometimes used to punish the wearer either by signalling their humiliation or causing direct suffering: • A ( in ) is devised for public humiliation; a popular reduced form are donkey ears for a bad pupil or student • Particularly uncomfortable types, such as an iron mask, for example the, are fit as devices for or • Masks were used to alienate and silence prisoners in Australian jails in the late 19th century. They were made of white cloth and covered the face, leaving only the eyes visible.
• Use of masks is also common in practices. Fashion Decorative masks may be worn as part of a costume outside of ritual or ceremonial functions. This is often described as a, and relates closely to styles.
For example, attendants of a costume party will sometimes wear masks as part of their costumes. • are used most widely in and Japanese wrestling.
A wrestler's mask is usually related to a wrestler's (for example, a wrestler known as 'The Panda' might wear a mask with a panda's facial markings). Often, wrestlers will put their masks on the line against other wrestlers' masks, titles or an opponent's hair. While in Mexico and Japan, masks are a sign of tradition, they are looked down upon in the United States and Canada.
• Several bands and performers, notably members of the groups, Mental Creepers and, and the guitarist, wear masks when they perform on stage. Several other groups, including,, and simulate the effect with facepaint. Also wears masks but often remove them mid-performance. •,, and other methods and themes are occasionally used to create. Male 'Human Pup' wearing a neoprene dog mask • A ' is a mask that covers only the cheeks (hence the adjective 'buccal') and mouth.
• A is a mask either cast from or applied to the face of a recently deceased person. • A ' (short for facial mask) is a temporary mask, not solid, used in cosmetics or as therapy for skin treatment.
• A 'life mask' is a cast of a face, used as a model for making a painting or sculpture. • An mask is used for people to create a more animal-like image in fetish role play. See also • • • References. • The Living Tradition of Yup'ik Masks; Anne Feinup-Riordan; University of Washington Press, Seattle, 1996; •.
• See Walther von Wartburg, 'Französisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch: Eine Darstellung galloromanischen sprachschatzes'. • Markus Kupferblum, 'Menschen, masken, Charaktere: the Arbeit mit Masken am Theater', in: Eva Kreissl (ed.), Die Macht der Maske. Weitra, Austria: Bibliothek der Provinz Verlag für Literatur, Kunst und Musikalien, 2007, p. • Henry Pernet, Ritual Masks: Deceptions and revelations. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1992. • William Healey Dall, On masks, labrets, and certain aboriginal customs, with an inquiry into the bearing of their geographical distribution.
Bureau of American Ethnology, Annual Report, 3, pp. Washington D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1884. (reprinted 2010) • Harald Klemm & Reinhard Winkler, Masken. Gesichter hinter dem Gesicht: Persönlichkeitsentfaltung und Therapie in der Arbeit mit Masken.
Oberhofen: Zytglogge-Verlag, 1996. • See further John W. Nunley et al., Masks: Faces of Culture.
New York; Harry N. Abrams, 1999; Richard Weihe, Die Paradoxie der Maske. Geschichte einer Form. Munich: Wilhelm Fink Verlag, 2004.
This section is inserted in the article because academics and translators dealing with this topic typically give insufficient attention to the relevant technical meanings involved in archaeology, theatre and drama. • The oldest known example of the is the, carbon-dated as 35,000 to 40,000 years old.
• A famous example is the images of the cave (circa 15,000 years old). According to John W. Nunley, 'The earliest evidence of masking comes from the Mousterian site of Hortus in the south of France. There the archaeologist Henry de Lumley found remnants of a leopard skin that was probably worn as a costume more than 40,000 years ago' – J.W. Nunley, Masks: Faces of Culture.
New York: Harry N. Abrams Inc., 1999, p. One of the oldest known cave drawings of a human face – 27,000 years old – was discovered in 2006 in the Vilhonneur grotto near in France. See: Adam Sage, 'Cave face 'the oldest portrait on record', The Times (London), 5 June 2006. • See the web page and Jonathan Amos, 'Neanderthal 'face' found in Loire', BBC News, 2 December 2003. • 'Nudity in itself may represent a symbolic and factual lifting of the mask' – Paul Bindrim, 'A report on a nude marathon: The effect of physical nudity upon the practice of interaction in the marathon group'. Psychotherapy, Theory, Research and Practice, 5, 180–188 (at p.
• Pnina Galpaz-Feller, 'Things are Not Always as They Seem.' Philadelphia: Schechter Institute of Jewish Studies, 2007 (published on MyJewishLearning.com). The reference is to the biblical story of and in Genesis 38, and to the biblical story of and in 1 Kings 14. •, 'The human image'.
In: Parabola (New York), Vol. 3, August 1981, p. Reprinted from Adin Steinsaltz, The thirteen-petalled rose. New York: Basic Books, 1980. • Alain Danielou, Gods of Love and Ecstasy.
The traditions of Shiva and Dionysus. Rochester, Vermont: Inner Traditions International, 1992, p. •, Symbols of sacred science. Hillsdale, New York: Sophia Perennis, 2004, p. • Jamie Ellin Forbes, 'The resurrection of the beauty of Spring: Jeanette Korab at Carnevale de Venezia'. Fine Art Magazine, Spring 2010, p.
• '.in many parts of the world and throughout Jewish history it was the time for adults to engage in masquerade.' – Julie Hilton Danan, 'Purim wears many masks'.
Jewish News of Greater Phoenix, Vol. 27, 21 March 1997..
Archived from on 10 June 2012. Retrieved 26 October 2012. • François Pannier & Stéphane Mangin, Masques de l'Himalaya, du primitif au classique. Paris: Editions Raymond Chabaud, 1989, p. Lisa Bradley & Eric Chazot, Masks of the Himalayas. New York: Pace Primitive Gallery, 1990. Dominique Blanc et al., Masks of the Himalayas.
Milan: 5 Continents Editions, 2009. • Charette site; Ann Fienup-Riordan, The Living Tradition of Yup'ik Masks: Agayuliyararput (Our Way of Making Prayer). University of Washington Press, 1996.
Lubin, 'Masks, mutilation and modernity: Anne Coleman Ladd and the first world war.' Archives of American Art Journal, Vol. 3-4, Fall 2008, p. • Gary Edson, Masks and Masking. Faces of tradition and belief worldwide. Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Co., 2005. • Joseph Gregor, Masks of the World.
Dover Publications, 2002; Erich Herold, The world of masks. Hamlyn, 1992. Pernet emphasizies that masks are not a wholly universal cultural phenomenon, raising the question why some cultures do not have a masking tradition. • Ritual, Masks, and Sacrifice;, Studies in Humanities and Social Services vol.11, Indian Institute of Advance Study, Shimla 2004. • Masques du Monde M.Revelard/G.
Kostadonova pub. La Renaissance du Livre 2000 Tournai Belgium • Griffith, Jeremy (2013).. WTM Publishing & Communications.
• Masks:Their Meaning and Function: Andreas Lommel pub. Ferndale Editions London orig.
Atlantis Verlag Zurich 1970 - introduction, after Himmelheber Afrikanische Masken •. Retrieved 2014-05-30. • Bortolot, Alexander Ives.. In Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, October 2003. Retrieved 25 March 2007.
Retrieved 2014-05-30. • Masks:Their Meaning and Function/Andreas Lommel pub. Ferndale Editions London 1970/Oceania:Melanesia, Polynesia, Australia • Where the Masks Still Dance: New Guinea; Chris Rainier and Meg Taylor; Bulfinch Press/Little, Brown & Co., 1996 • American Indian Art/Norman Feder pub. New York 1973 Lib. Of Congress Cat. Card 73-4857 •. American Ethnography.
Retrieved 2010-07-06. Retrieved 2014-05-30. • Masks:Their Meaning and Function Andreas Lommel pub. Ferndale Editions London 1970/South America/Central America • ^ Masked Performance: John Emigh, publisher: 1996 • Masks:Their Meaning and Function Andreas Lommel pub. Ferndale Editions London 1970/Japan • The History of Theater in Iran/Willem Floor: MAGE 2005/ • Masks: the Art of Expression edit.
John Mack/pub. British Museum 1994 /'The Other Within: Masks and masquerades in Europe' Cesayo dogre Poppi • Masks:Their Meaning and Function Andreas Lommel pub.
Ferndale Editions London 1970/Europe/Conclusion • Festivals and Celebrations/Roland Auguet/Collins 1975/LCCC 73-15299 • cdl.Iibrary.cornell.edu • The Universe of Masks/trans. From Masques du Monde; Revelard, Kostadinova; La renaissance du Livre • Masks: the Art of Expression edit.
John Mack/pub. British Museum 1994 • ^ Callery, Dympha (2001). Through the Body: A Practical Guide to Physical Theatre.
London: Nick Hern Books. • The Theatre of Edward Gordon Craig: Bablet, pub. Eyre Methuen, London 1981 • Masks in Modern Drama: Susan Harris Smith, 1984 • Rudlin, John (1999). '3: Jacques Copeau: the quest for sincerity'. In Hodge, Alison.
20th Century Actor Training. The Moving Body: Teaching Creative Theatre. • American Alternative Theatre: Theodore Shank pub. Macmillan Modern Dramatists London 1982 • Veil; Bob Frith, pb. Horse + Bamboo Theatre/ • 16 October 2006 at the. • 12 February 2009 at the. • Bob Barker [www.bobbarker.com A site devoted to such crafts].
Further reading • Burch, Ernest S. (junior); Forman, Werner (1988). Norman, Oklahoma 73018, USA: University of Oklahoma Press.. • Hessel, Ingo; Hessel, Dieter (1998).
An introduction. Foreword by George Swinton.
46 Bloomsbury Street, London WCIB 3QQ: British Museum Press.. • Kleivan, Inge; B. Sonne (1985).
Eskimos: Greenland and Canada. Iconography of religions, section VIII, 'Arctic Peoples', fascicle 2. Leiden, The Netherlands: Institute of Religious Iconography • State University Groningen. • (1979) [c1950]. Seasonal variations of the Eskimo: a study in social morphology.
With Henri Beuchat; translated, with a foreword, by James J. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul..
• Oosten, Jarich G. 'Cosmological Cycles and the Constituents of the Person'. Arctic Ecology and Identity. ISTOR Books 8. Budapest • Los Angeles: Akadémiai Kiadó • International Society for Trans-Oceanic Research.
Frankfurt am Main: Frankurter Societăts-Druckerei. • Rasmussen, Knud (1965). Thulei utazás.
Világjárók (in Hungarian). Translated by Detre, Zsuzsa. Budapest: Gondolat. Hungarian translation of Rasmussen 1926. • Sivin, Carole (1986).
Worcester, Massachusetts, USA: Davis Publications, Inc. •, 'Masks in Modern Drama', Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984. • Huteson, Pamela Rae, 'Transformation Masks', Blaine 2007 www.hancockhouse.com • Wilsher, Toby, 'The Mask Handbook - A Practical Guide', Routledge 2007, www.routledge.com External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to. • • • • • [ ] • • •.
For many centuries African Tribal masks, played a major role in rituals, celebrations, ceremonial and tribal initiations. Masking rituals are normally accompanied with prayer, music, song and or dance. Before the sculpting start, the artisan purifies himself and performs a prayer, consulting the divine forces and the spirits of his ancestor’s for guidance.
The divine force will be transferred to the mask during the sculpting process. The carver also offers a sacrifice to the spirit of the tree. Once the tree is felled the sculptor leaves it for a day or two, so that the spirit of the tree can find a 'new home', thereafter he brings the tree to his workshop to starts the process of carving the mask. Points to note: Masks displayed in museums or art galleries are but one component of the cultural ethos as a whole. Masks in Africa have an original setting and atmosphere.
Men and or women that wear masks are fully dressed in traditional tribal attire or in accordance with the theme or significance of the event. Song, dance, music and or prayer accompany masking ceremonies, along with the entire village folk that participate in the ceremony or festival.
Some masks are used as Icons of power to ward off evil spirits and some are used to celebrate and thank the ancestors during crop harvesting. Rainmakers, traditional healers and even the young men that graduate from initiation school wear masks and full during rituals or ceremonies. Over the last few decades there has been a sharp decline in masking rituals. The masks displayed in our catalog come from various countries and tribes on the continent. Similar masks were used during rituals, ceremonies and or initiations. Each piece in our collection has been hand selected and is of the finest quality available. We here at Rebirth sincerely hope you find the pieces displayed in our catalog just as exciting and intriguing as we do.
To view the collection click on the images of your choice, to learn more about African masks click the links below. Also read To view mask history by tribe click the links below Bobo Yaure.
• • > • • > • ONI Payment Processor How You Can Safely Uninstall ONI Payment Processor - Removal Tutorials One of the most common problems computer users encounter is that a program can’t be removed. Today let’s see how to correctly uninstall ONI Payment Processor in Windows, and I’ll also list the possible reasons that you can’t complete the removal. Why You Fail to Uninstall ONI Payment Processor If you are unable to completely uninstall ONI Payment Processor, the cause could one or more of the following situation: • ONI Payment Processor was not properly or completely installed previously. • Windows OS is unable to locate the default uninstaller of the program. • Some of the program files have been deleted mistakenly. • Related registry entries of the program are corrupted. • Your computer has been infected by virus and the system does not function properly.
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Uninstall ONI Payment Processor. • Open the Programs and Features. • Activate the removal. • Confirmation. • Possibly you’re requested to restart the computer.
To do this, right-click on the Start button, and select Programs and Features > Double-click ONI Payment Processor in the list to activate the built-in uninstaller > Confirm the removal > Restart the computer right away or do it later. Search and delete the remaining files. • Open the Registry Editor • Check for HKEY_CURRENT_USER Software (ONI Payment Processor or the publisher’s name) to delete. • Check for HKEY_LOCAL+MACHINE SOFTWARE (ONI Payment Processor or the publisher’s name) to delete. • Search “ONI Payment Processor (or the publisher's name)” to check. • Restart the computer if you haven’t done it. To do this, execute “regedit” in the search input field to open the Registry Editor > Navigate to this folder: HKEY_CURRENT_USER Software (ONI Payment Processor or the publisher’s name), and delete it if found > Navigate to this folder: HKEY_LOCAL+MACHINE SOFTWARE (ONI Payment Processor or the publisher’s name), and delete it if found > Search “ONI Payment Processor (or the publisher's name)” to check if there’s any other leftovers > Restart the computer.
A Simpler Way to Uninstall ONI Payment Processor in Windows Don’t bother to perform the regular steps? Then this would be your best choice - using Max Uninstaller, which manages all the necessary jobs for you, to safely, completely uninstall ONI Payment Processor. It’s like breaking open a way through brambles and thorns, there’s no need to worry about the troubles that may appear in the middle of the removal. I’ll explain every step for you, so that the next time you want to remove a program by using it, you can do it faster: 1.
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Also keep all the items checked, and click Delete Leftovers to Completely uninstall ONI Payment Processor. When it says “ONI Payment Processor has been completely removed,” click “Back to Step1” to refresh the programs list. ONI Payment Processor should no longer be there, and you can try Max Uninstaller on any other program you wish to remove. Are you sold? Some More Tips Besides uninstalling needless programs in the system, there are many other ways to optimize your computer’s performance. For instance: • Run fewer programs at the startup. • Close the programs/web pages/emails that you’re done working with.
• Don’t use more than one antivirus product. • Keep all the hardware drivers up-to-date. • Use the “High Performance” Power Plan.
• Turn off unneeded visual effects. These should be the easiest to reach and realize. Surely you can get more other maintenance tips on the Internet, and they are all free. I do hope this page has provided the most practical information you’re looking for.